Cannibalism Archaeology and Anthropology

Cannibalism refers to a range of behaviors in which one member of a species consumes the parts or all of another member. The behavior occurs commonly in numerous birds, insects, and mammals, including chimpanzees and humans. Key Takeaways: Cannibalism Cannibalism is a common behavior in birds and insects, and primates including humans.The technical term for humans eating humans is anthropophagy.  Earliest evidence for anthropophagy is 780,000 years ago, at Gran Dolina, Spain.Genetic and archaeological evidence suggests it may have been a relatively common practice in the ancient past, perhaps as part of an ancestor worship ritual.   Human cannibalism (or anthropophagy) is one of the most taboo behaviors of modern society  and at the same time one of our earliest cultural practices. Recent biological evidence suggests that cannibalism was not only not rare in ancient history, it was so common that most of us carry around genetic evidence of our self-consuming past. Categories of Human Cannibalism Although the stereotype of the cannibals feast is a pith-helmeted fellow standing in a stew pot, or the pathological antics of a serial killer, today scholars recognize human cannibalism as a wide variety of behaviors with a wide range of meanings and intentions. Outside of pathological cannibalism, which is very rare and not particularly relevant to this discussion, anthropologists and archaeologists divide cannibalism into six major categories, two referring to the relationship between consumer and consumed, and four referring to the meaning of the consumption. Endocannibalism (sometimes spelled endo-cannibalism) refers to consumption of members of ones own groupExocannibalism (or exo-cannibalism) refers to the consumption of outsidersMortuary cannibalism takes place as part of funerary rites  and can be practiced as a form of affection, or as an act of renewal and reproductionWarfare cannibalism is the consumption of enemies, which can be in part honoring brave opponents or exhibiting power over the defeatedSurvival cannibalism is consumption of weaker individuals (very young, very old, sickly) under conditions of starvation such as shipwreck, military siege, and famine Other recognized but less-studied categories include medicinal, which involves the ingestion of human tissue for medical purposes; technological, including cadaver-derived drugs from pituitary glands for human growth hormone; autocannibalism, eating parts of oneself including hair and fingernails; placentophagy, in which the mother consumes her new-born babys placenta; and innocent cannibalism, when a person is unaware that they are eating human flesh. What Does it Mean? Cannibalism is often characterized as part of the darker side of humanity, along with ​rape, slavery, infanticide, incest, and mate-desertion. All of those traits are ancient parts of our history which are associated with violence and the violation of modern social norms. Western anthropologists have attempted to explain the occurrence of cannibalism, beginning with French philosopher Michel de Montaignes 1580 essay on cannibalism seeing it as a form of cultural relativism. Polish anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski declared that everything in human society had a function, including cannibalism; British anthropologist E.E. Evans-Pritchard saw cannibalism as fulfilling a human requirement for meat. Everybody Wants to be a Cannibal American anthropologist Marshall Sahlins saw cannibalism as one of several practices that developed as a combination of symbolism, ritual, and cosmology; and Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud 502 saw it as reflective of underlying psychoses. Serial killers throughout history, including Richard Chase, committed acts of cannibalism. American anthropologist Shirley Lindenbaums extensive compilation of explanations (2004) also includes Dutch anthropologist Jojada Verrips, who argues that cannibalism may well be a deep-seated desire in all humans and the accompanying anxiety about it in us even today: the cravings for cannibalism in modern days are met by movies, books, and music, as substitutes for our cannibalistic tendencies. The remnants of cannibalistic rituals could also be said to be found in explicit references, such as the Christian Eucharist (in which worshipers consume ritual substitutes of the body and blood of Christ). Ironically, the early Christians were called cannibals by the Romans because of the Eucharist; while Christians called the Romans cannibals for roasting their victims at the stake. Defining the Other The word cannibal is fairly recent; it comes from Columbus reports from his second voyage to the Caribbean in 1493, in which he uses the word to refer to Caribs in the Antilles who were identified as eaters of human flesh. The connection with colonialism is not a  coincidence. Social discourse about cannibalism within a European or western tradition is much older, but almost always as an institution among other cultures, people who eat people need/deserve to be subjugated. It has been suggested (described in Lindenbaum) that reports of institutionalized cannibalism were always greatly exaggerated. The English explorer Captain James Cooks journals, for example, suggest that the preoccupation of the crew with cannibalism might have led the Maori to exaggerate the relish in which they consumed roasted human flesh. The True Darker Side of Humanity Post-colonial studies suggest that some of the stories of cannibalism by missionaries, administrators, and adventurers, as well as allegations by neighboring groups, were politically-motivated derogatory or ethnic stereotypes. Some skeptics still view cannibalism as never having happened, a product of the European imagination and a tool of the Empire, with its origins in the disturbed human psyche. The common factor in the history of cannibal allegations is the combination of denial in ourselves and attribution of it to those we wish to defame, conquer, and civilize. But, as Lindenbaum quotes Claude Rawson, in these egalitarian times we are in double denial, denial about ourselves has been extended to denial on behalf of those we wish to rehabilitate and acknowledge as our equals. We are All Cannibals? Recent molecular studies have suggested, however, that all of us were cannibals at one time. The genetic propensity that makes a person resistant to prion diseases (also known as transmissable spongiform encephalopathies or TSEs such as Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, kuru, and scrapie)—a propensity that most humans have—may have resulted from ancient human consumption of human brains. This, in turn, makes it likely that cannibalism was once a very widespread human practice indeed. More recent identification of cannibalism is based primarily on the recognition of butchering marks on human bones, the same kinds of butchering marks—long bone breakage for marrow extraction, cutmarks and chop marks resulting from skinning, defleshing and evisceration, and marks left by chewing—as that seen on animals prepared for meals. Evidence of cooking and the presence of human bone in coprolites (fossilized feces) have also been used to support a cannibalism hypothesis. Cannibalism through Human History The earliest evidence for human cannibalism to date has been discovered at the lower paleolithic site of Gran Dolina (Spain), where about 780,000 years ago, six individuals of Homo antecessor were butchered. Other important sites include the Middle Paleolithic sites of Moula-Guercy France (100,000 years ago), Klasies River Caves (80,000 years ago in South Africa), and El Sidron (Spain 49,000 years ago). Cutmarked and broken human bones found in several Upper Paleolithic Magdalenian sites (15,000-12,000 BP), particularly in the Dordogne valley of France and the Rhine Valley of Germany, including Goughs cave, hold evidence that human corpses had been dismembered for nutritional cannibalism, but skull treatment to make skull-cups also suggest possible ritual cannibalism. Late Neolithic Social Crisis During the late Neolithic in Germany and Austria (5300–4950 BCE), at several sites such as Herxheim, entire villages were butchered and eaten and their remains thrown into ditches. Boulestin and colleagues surmise a crisis occurred, an example of collective violence found at several sites in the end of the Linear Pottery culture. More recent events studied by scholars include the Anasazi site of Cowboy Wash (the United States, ca 1100 CE), Aztecs of 15th century CE Mexico, colonial-era Jamestown, Virginia, Alferd Packer, the Donner Party (both 19th century USA), and the Fore of Papua New Guinea (who stopped cannibalism as a mortuary ritual in 1959). Sources Anderson, Warwick. Objectivity and Its Discontents. Social Studies of Science 43.4 (2013): 557–76. Print.Bello, Silvia M., et al. Upper Palaeolithic Ritualistic Cannibalism at Goughs Cave (Somerset, UK): The Human Remains from Head to Toe. Journal of Human Evolution 82 (2015): 170–89. Print.Cole, James. Assessing the Calorific Significance of Episodes of Human Cannibalism in the Palaeolithic. Scientific Reports 7 (2017): 44707. Print.Lindenbaum, Shirley. Thinking About Cannibalism. Annual Review of Anthropology 33 (2004): 475–98. Print.Milburn, Josh. Chewing over in Vitro Meat: Animal Ethics, Cannibalism and Social Progress. Res Publica 22.3 (2016): 249–65. Print.Nyamnjoh, Francis B., ed. Eating and Being Eaten: Cannibalism as Food for Thought. Mankon, Bamenda, Cameroon: Langaa Research Publishing CIG, 2018.Rosas, Antonio, et al. Les Nà ©andertaliens D’el Sidrà ³n (Asturies, Espagne). Actualisation D’un Nouvel Échantillon. LAnthropolog ie 116.1 (2012): 57–76. Print.Saladià ©, Palmira, et al. Intergroup Cannibalism in the European Early Pleistocene: The Range Expansion and Imbalance of Power Hypotheses. Journal of Human Evolution 63.5 (2012): 682–95.

What is Autism - 1999 Words

Autism is a varied family of disorders, and its prevalence is on the rise. Today, one in 110 children are diagnosed with Autism. Although there are a few drugs available to treat repetitive behaviors and irritability, associated side effects can limit their use. Currently there are no effective treatments for the core symptoms of Autism which often include language and communication shortfalls, intellectual disability, epilepsy, attention deficits, and hyperactivity (Dolan et al. 5671). Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most common inherited form of intellectual disability and is universally recognized as the monogenic cause of Autism. The gene responsible for Fragile X Syndrome, FMR1, is located on the long arm of the X chromosome. It contains a CGG repeat sequence in the 5’-untranslated region that, on expansion to greater than 200 repeats, results in gene methylation and transcriptional silencing of the FMR1 gene. The absence of its protein product, fragile X mental retardat ion protein (FMRP), is responsible for the clinical symptoms and pathologic findings of FXS. In the past few years, a plethora of research has been conducted in regards to Fragile X syndrome. Many scientists are hoping to uncover therapeutic agents that not only address the secondary symptoms, but the root cause of the disease as well. Absence of FMRP had been shown in a recent study to affect rates of brain protein synthesis in awake and functioning animals. In adult FMR1 knockout mice, regionalShow MoreRelatedAutism : What Causes Autism? Essay1112 Words   |  5 Pages What is Autism? How is Autism classified? What causes Autism? Why do Autism happen? There are some many questions about Autism, and what it is. Many of those questions are still unknown. Everyday researchers are exploring reasons for these questions. However, Autism was introduced in the 1940s autism was first described in the 1940s. 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Democracy Free Essays

Democracy Democracy has become a dominant form of the government, that using in many countries. Democracy is a government form, which is the citizen should have a decision to vote their leader directly for their own country or elect the leader for the other problems. Democracy can develop it, if the majority and the minority party or the association willing works together. We will write a custom essay sample on Democracy or any similar topic only for you Order Now Which is everybody can talk and have an opinion, than will put the all idea together and take a better decision for the problem. With democracy form, the one elected leader will work as maximum as possible for the citizens. Than the citizens can see and make a decision about what the elected leader have done to the country and also they have elected the right or wrong leader. Democracy is based on the concept, that everybody in the world is the same, no matter what they are a president or a king. In democracy also have no different between how people look like. For example: White and black, lower class and middle class. Furthermore, not everybody have an equal physically or mentally. The important thing, democracy is all human being have equality. In democracy have an important concept. The first concept is all of the citizens that living in one country, that should be equal, which have an idea and an opinion than issues to the public. The important thing, while elect the candidates for the country leader, that everybody needs to listen to the candidates because the candidates have a different ideas and plans to what they will do for the country. The candidates also need a concept of equality to speech in front all of country citizen, which will vote for the election about what their plans for the future, if they win as a country leader. Even though, the citizens divide to a different side of parties. The United State of America is using the democracy form. Four years ago, Barrack Obama won the election from John McCain as a 44th president of the United State of America, which was using a democracy form. For the 2012 president election, which Barrack Obama and Mitt Romney were candidates for the president and won by Obama. That is one of example for the democracy form. All American citizen need to participate in the election because all of them are important. They have a better decision to vote and make a difference between both of presidential candidates for the next four years for America. The second concept, the citizens, the government and the candidates should be freedom. This democracy concept is based on equality concept because with freedom people will free to have and issues the idea and opinion to the public and the people also should be listening to each other. Than combine the ideas and opinion and take a good decision, which is can keep a good name of the country. â€Å"Democracy depends on citizen participation in all these ways. But participation must be peaceful, respectful of the law, and tolerant of the different views of other groups and individuals. † Even though the democracy concept is freedom and equality, but without participation of citizen, the democracy form cannot work. The country needs a citizen to participate and also need respect for the law. The concept of freedom is not about the citizen become a totally free under the government. That problem can only become an anarchy, where have no government to control the country. The citizens are totally free from everything; they can do what ever they like. For Example: The country has a corruption, everywhere people are poor people and many of them become a murderer to get money, in order to survive their self. Hereafter, the freedom concept has free to choose any religion, to worship and to practice the religion. Further, also free develop their own culture; teach the culture to each other. Democracy also allows the people move from the country. Furthermore, democracy is the system that follows the rule. â€Å"The rule of law protects the rights of citizens, maintains order, and limits the power of government. With having a rule of law, the country can be affordable because everything is safe; they have a right of citizen. Everybody who life in a democracy forms that will be equal to each other because the citizens live under the law. With the law people cannot do what ever they like because they will get no excuse for it. For example: One of the government official grafts the money from one of the project. That is a big problem beca use he or she is breaking the rule of law in democracy form. The sanction at least the government official will go to the jail. For Example: Indonesia, if the government Official and a businessman have a problem with to the government or to other problem, and also corruption, will have a decision to go to the jail. Forward, all of citizens and government have equality under the law. â€Å"No one may be taxed or prosecuted except by a law established in advance. † In democracy country, no one can live without the law, because everybody in one country is all the citizen of the country. Than the citizen cannot make any changes for the law, even for the president cannot break the law because law is established and adhered to. The form of democracy is very good to use in the government. The citizen will have a freedom to chose the country leader, which is they have time to decision and also make it a different for the country, also for their self. Everybody in democracy form always have to get equality between the citizen and the government. The citizen who have an ideas or opinion and can issue their opinion to the government, which is can make any change for the country and help the people in the country. The democracy can make the government easier to control the citizen and the country because the people are obedient against the rule of law. Further, the country is safer from the criminal, from the project corruption and also can help the citizen to improve their self to become a better citizen than useful for the country. Reference: 1. â€Å"What Is Democracy? † What Is Democracy? Web. 09 Nov. 2012. http://www. stanford. edu/~ldiamond/iraq/WhaIsDemocracy012004. htm. 2. Grigsby, Ellen. Analyzing Politics. 4th ed. How to cite Democracy, Papers Democracy Free Essays Etymologically, democracy comes from two Greek words, demos and cratein. Demos means society while cratein means authority. There are many terminological definitions of democracy, one of it is definition is by Henry B. We will write a custom essay sample on Democracy or any similar topic only for you Order Now Mayo stating that democracy is a political system showing the public policy determined by representatives audited effectively by the society by having periodic elections based on principles of political similarities in a situation where there is freedom to choose.This means that the government has to accept opinions and critics from the society and no right to interfere with non-formal democracy facilities, also the freedom of speech and media. Democracy has its three roles, to be the government of the people, by the people and for the people; †¢A valid government is an approved government that has the support of majority of the people through elections. †¢Government’s authority has to be upon the people not from the elite personal and bureaucracy drive. †¢Government’s authority has to be established by the basis the people’s needs Democracy: Norms of CoexistenceThere are six norms for a democratic society, which are: 1. Realization of pluralism T he acknowledgement of differences has to be acted to appreciate different perspectives, shrinking any acts of supremacy of the majorities and tyranny of the minorities. 2. Discussions Having diplomatic and mature citizens who can accept negotiations and compromises socially or politically with no hard feelings on every decisions made 3. To gain has to be in sync with the goal It is not enough to apply democracy on elections and such, but there has be morals and with no need for threats and enforcements 4.Norm of honesty and agreements Mastering the art of discussions to be honest and transparent, giving a win-win situation for all 5. Freedom of conscience and egalitarianism This norm will develop greatly if assumed positively, if not, it will show the potential of being secretive and misunderstanding 6. Trial and error Democracy needs experiments and participation of the people in order to have the maximal achievement of this norm Democracy is not a one-day process that can be gained in a short time. It is a long and risky journey to reach the topia of democracy and patience is the key for achieving it. . History of Democracy Democracy was first started in Greece on the 6th century B. C until the 4th century A. D. It was once a system where it is the people’s right to decide on politics, however the system was biased because the haves were dominating. Then, in the medieval times, democracy strikes again when Magna Charta was born in England, stating that the King’s authority was limited and the people’s rights were more important than the King’s. The great era of Renaissance, which means rebirth in French, sparked more democracy in Europe. After Renaissance, the Reformation Movement, which is the revolution of religion in the 16th century, revived democracy after its defeat in the medieval times. Martin Luther King was one of the critics fighting against the churches and absolutism, he stated that rationalities are based on the natural law and social contract.. Social contract, defined by Montesquieu, is the main system which guarantees political rights through trias politica, which is the division of authority: legislative, executive and judicative.All this centuries of democracy resurgences is to obtain the welfare state. Democracy in Indonesia 1. 1945-1959 Known as the Parliamentary Democracy, it is not suitable for Indonesia with its lack of democracy background, giving the chance for political parties to dominate socio-politic life. This furthers the fragmentation of politic derived from stereotypes of ethnics and religion. 2. 1959-1965 Named as Guided Democracy, known for its domination from the president and the outbreak of communism and military role in the national politics.The main flaw of this democracy is the absolutism and centralization of authority for the president causing loss of social control and check balance from legislatives towards executives. 3. New Order (1965-1998) The New Order was started in the Soeharto era, a solution for adjusting the deviation of the UUD 1945 from the previous system. It is believed to aid the achievement of the 3 goals, to enforce and validate the principles of law of the state, having a adequate economical life for each individuals, and protecting the human rights and justice. However, this order starts new problems such as the domination of military forces, bureaucracy of decision arrangements, elimination and of the roles of political parties, government’s interference to political parties, monotilized ideology of nation, in cooperation of non-government institutions 4. Post-New Order (1998-present) The Reformation era is usually connected to the movement of reformed society demanding democracy and human rights. Reformation started at Mei 1998 when Soeharto resigns, leaving the society no responsiveness towards Pancasila.This is the type of democracy which has no strings attached, where the rights of each individual is the main component in the mechanism of a democratic regime. Elements of Democracy 1. The Rule of Law and Rechtsstaat) It is defined as a state giving law protection for the people through fair and open justice institutions, also guaranteeing human rights of the individuals. Rechtsstaat has the concept of having security for human ri ghts, divisions for state authorities, government based on the law and justification of administration. The Rule of Law is known to have supremacy of the rules of law, equality before the law and assurance of human rights 2. Civil Society Civil society is an open society, having equal of obligation and rights and no pressure from the nation. Participation form the society is the significant key for democracy, having the civic engagement in order to help the process of decision makings. 3. Alliance of Strategic Groups This component includes political parties, movement and pressure groups. Political parties are designed to gain authority and rank to accomplish political policies.Movement groups are a group of people assembled in an organization oriented at society’s empowerment. for example Muhammadiyah, Nahdlatul Ulama, Persatuan Islam, Himpunan Mahasiswa Islam, Gerakan Mahasiswa Nasionalis Indonesia and etc. Last but not least, the pressure groups are the organization based on a interest criteria, for example Ikatan Dokter Indonesia, Asosiasi Ilmuwan Politik Indonesia and so on. These three groups have an important role towards democracy, increasing the critical minds, independence, constitutional in stating the mission and importance of each organization.The press and the intellectuals are also a vital essential for democracy, giving a significant application on having a democratic system. Parameters of Democratic Life Democracy isn’t just a dissertation with principles but it has a parameter and surface area which scopes: 1. Election is a process of forming a government, until now election is the most fair and a main instrument in a government replacement 2. Structure of state power is the division and distribution of authority in order to avoid an integrated control in one region or department 3. Society control is the authority relation which goes on symmetrically, has a clear connection and a check and balance mechanism Election and Political Party in a Democratic System Election is a democratic mechanism to decide on the rotation of governance structure where the people are given political rights. It has to be held routinely with a transparent competition between the political parties Political party has an significant role in democracy, as a political structure which gains the authority and political rank. It is also a center of the people’s aspirations.This role is an implementation of values of democracy which consists of people’s participation through society control. There are various systems of parties, such as one party system, two party system and multiparty system. Islam and Democracy There are three views on Islam and democracy: 1. Islam and democracy is two different political system, Islam cannot be subordinated with democracy since Islam is a sel f-sufficient political system 2. Islam is different compared to democracy if the democracy is defined as a procedure understood and practiced in Western countries 3. 3.Islam is a system value which corrects and supports democracy just like the Western countries have There are arguments against the development of democracy in Islam, first, the misunderstood and biased view on democratic practice. Most Muslims consider democracy as something in contradiction of Islam. In order to anticipate this, it is needed to liberate the religious thought to search for consensus and synthesis between Islam and democracy. Secondly, it’s a matter of culture since some Muslims are used to autocracy and absolutism. Lastly, it is said that it is only natural that democracy slows up its development in Islam. How to cite Democracy, Papers

Evaluation the Performance of Entity-Free-Samples-Myassignement

Question: Write a report on Leadership in evaluating the performance of an Entity. Answer: The role of leadership is explained in the current assignment after assessing the financial performance of Superior manufacturing company. Current state of the firm states that profit of the firm is determined by considering all the elements of the income statements of the business concern. Current profit of the firm is $310000 which shows that overall costs incurred in an entity is less as compared to the overall sales and the revenue generated by the business entity (Bolman Deal, 2017). In this case, leadership principle is to be followed by the finance manager of the superior manager company to control the higher sales and the revenue by investing the higher generated profit into different income sources to produce higher returns within a given span of time. The income statements of an entity can be observed as one of the financial statements in evaluating the performance of the business concern. Finance manager can easily track the financial position of superior manufacturing firm to improve its current performance. It has been noticed that higher profit generated y the firm is not beneficial as this will, in turn, increases the tax obligations charged at 30% on the generated profit (Ozkan, Cakan Kayacan, 2017). Tax charged on $310000@30% is $93000. Income after tax of the firm will be $217000. A finance manager of an entity can use transformational leadership style to convince all the personnel to act in the favour of an entity as the finance manager of the superior manufacturing entity will explain all the benefits of working in this entity will help in ensuring the survival of all the employees n this entity for long term purpose. It is recommended to the owner of the firm to reduce their current tax obligations of $93000 by investing the total profit of $310000 into bonds, Systematic investment plan which helps in increasing the return on investments. This mode helps in safeguarding the tax imposed on the total income of an entity. References Bolman, L. G., Deal, T. E. (2017).Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and leadership. John Wiley Sons. Ozkan, N., Cakan, S., Kayacan, M. (2017). Intellectual capital and financial performance: A study of the Turkish Banking Sector.Borsa Istanbul Review. 17(3). 190-198.